Alexander Wendt The Agent-Structure Problem in International Relations Essay

Alexander Wendt The Agent-Structure Problem in International Relations - Essay Example Initially, Wendt believed on Marxism, as a way of understanding international politics and capital, but later turned to constructivist theory. According to Wendt (1999, 110), in the Agent-Structure theory of international relations, states in international relations act: out of the need to make own free choices and independently; and out of consistent patterned structures which fundamentally shape state choices and opportunities. This discussion therefore seeks to discuss Wendt’s theory and is therefore divided into four sections as shown below: Wendt’s central argument How Wendt’s argument differs from neo-realism and world-systems theory Whether Wendt’s ‘solution’ to the agent-structure problem is the only one available or not Whether Wendt’s ‘solution’ compelling or not Alexander E. Wendt (b. 1958, Mainz, W. Germany) is a political scientist and a core constructivist scholar in the field of international relations. Toget her with scholars such as Peter Katzenstein, Michael Barnett and Martha Finnemore, Wendt established constructivism as a school of thought. Wendt has taught Yale University (1989-1997), Dartmouth College (1997-1999), University of Chicago (1999-2004) and Ohio State University, where he currently serves as the Ralph D. Mershon Professor of International Security. Wendt wrote the Agent-Structure Problem in International Relations in 1987. ... state interests and identities and that because of this, many scholars fail to consider how first and second factors affect state interests and identity. Wendt also points out the failure of neoliberalism as being steeped in the fact that it seeks to explain interstate cooperation by only focusing on the process, while leaving out systematic variables. Constructivism fails to address how state identities are formed in practice (Clarke, 2003, 122). Nevertheless, Wendt ties the constructivist approach to the concept of self-help. This is because, international institutions (as self-help agents) may change identities and interests of states. The concept of self-help as is viewed by realists and himself emanates from the interaction of the units in a system in lieu of anarchy. This stands diametrically opposed to structural and deterministic documents which realists advance, and in which anarchy exists as the principal explanatory variable which drives interactions. Wendt also posits tha t states interact with one another, and depending on the results of the interaction, these states can come to be characaterised by self-help. Whatever is accrued depends on the process and not the structure (Fay, 1996, 75 and Fuller, 1998, 98-112). Klotz, Lynch and Dunn (2006, 355 – 381) observe that according to Wendt, unlike norms-based constructivism, neorealism and neoliberalism cannot give an adequate account for changes which take place in international systems. For instance, neorealism and neoliberalism cannot account for the manner in which states behave at their pristine periods, before they acquire any priors. Koran (2007, 324 – 326) and Nishimura (2011, 96 – 112) charge that Wendt identifies sovereignty, evolution of cooperation and intentional efforts to change egoistic

Law Legal Authority Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Law Legal Authority - Essay Example From this discussion it is clear that the lawyers present policy and legal issues before a group of judges or a single judge in the persuasion of the judge in a bench trial or jury in a jury trial. In addition, judges in the Appellate courts reviews materials collected and compiled from the original trial to determine whether the decision of the lower court was correct.This paper outlines that a court opinion is considered a precedent when a previous ruling by a particular court is used to rule a current case. Precedent court opinions are used in ruling cases in the court because court decisions in similar cases should be similar or same. Published judicial opinions are used by judges to rule out similar cases in the court. The highest court in the U.S is the State Supreme Court. It was created under Article III of the Constitution of the United States. The State Supreme Court has exclusive and original jurisdiction of all controversies related to the state or between two or more sta tes. The State Supreme Court has original jurisdiction of all proceedings involving ambassadors, consults and public ministers. In addition, controversies between the U.S. and a State are ruled by the State Supreme Court. The State Supreme Court has jurisdiction of all proceedings or actions by a State against aliens or citizens of another State.  The state court of appeals handles proceeding and ruling over appeals received from district courts within the State.  

Leader Plays An Important Role Management Essay

Leader Plays An Important Role Management Essay Leader plays an important role in the world environment. When any organization whatever wants to be successful, a good leadership is one of the success factors. Leadership is in everywhere. Leadership occurs in our surrounding environment. The main objective of leadership is to achieve a common goal or task with a group of people in the organization together. But the leader may or may not have any power. Leader is being with intangible spirit here to lead the people to accomplish the goals and tasks. The leader should lead the people on the right track. The leadership has been described as a person can complete a common task in the process of social influence, while seeking the aid and support of others. Three of the authority, responsibility, functions and power to perform their duties, the exercise of the functions of a means and conditions to perform their duties, the exercise of their functions is of the essence and core of the leader. However, the leader in order to effectively exercise leadership function alone institutionalized statutory powers is not enough, you must have convincing and to comply with the high degree of authority, have a huge appeal to subordinates, attractive and subtle influence. What is the effective leadership? The aims of this assignment is to explore what the effective leadership is and evaluate the leadership how to make impact on a matter such as followers, organizations, and relationships and so on. Definition of leadership First of all, now note that what the definition of leadership is. In fact, leadership is not a clearly defined and its definition of each person can be different. So here quote some representative definitions and as the following: Leadership is the behavior of an individual when he is directing the activities of a group toward a shared goal. (Hemphill Coons, 1957, p.7) Leadership is interpersonal influence, exercised in a situation, and directed, through the communication process, toward the attainment of a specified goal or goals. (Tannenbaum, Weschler, Massarik, 1961, p.24) Leadership is the influential increment over and above mechanical compliance with the routine directives of the organization. (Katz Kahn, 1978, p.528) Leadership is a process of giving purpose (meaningful direction) to collective effort, and causing willing effort to be expended to achieve purpose. (Jacobs Jaques, 1990, p.281) According to the above definition of leadership, leadership is two-way relationship and a chain reaction with followers. Leadership is a process to guide the followers to accomplish a common goal or task. In the process, leader and followers will get satisfied through communicate with each other. The leadership has influence for followers to work together to complete the instruction. Leadership has collective power of solidarity toward meaningful direction. Followership Style To be effective leadership, followership is an important relationship. It is because followership and leadership are a two-way relationship, which constantly touch each other. Better leadership and better followership and vice versa. In addition to the leader personal capacity, how to attract followers to follow is one of the most critical factors in the relations of good leadership. Bass (1990) points out, leadership and followership are mutual activities of influence and counter-influence, since both stimulate and reinforce the others behavior. In modern enterprises, an effective follower has not to be always following somebodys advice and to be dead set the simple dedication. Followers should have the following qualities: critical and independent thinking, proactive work attitude, willing to take responsibility determination, the courage to dare to challenge the authority of the self-management ability. These characteristics make the followers become the core strength of the company, so that they become the organization efficient fundamental. Leadership effectiveness As above mention, followership and leaderships relationship cannot separate. For the leadership, in different situation have different approach to apply into it. There are diagram to show the stages of leadership theory and research as the following: Here are several of leadership approaches to express how to make effective leadership. This report will focus on trait approach, situation approach and new leadership approach to explore these approaches how to affect an effective leadership. Trait Approach Trait theory suppose that leaders have some common characteristics, such as psychological, personality and sociological to determine its effectiveness. The example of the psychological characteristics involved intelligence and charisma. The sociological characteristics involved level of education and status of social economic class. The trait theory focuses on the requirements of demand or a variety of circumstances between the leader and the followers. The trait approach is the earliest and you can understand the success of leadership and is concentrated in the leaders personal characteristics or personality. Based on assumption, leaders are born, not made. How can distinguish the leaders? There are too many traits. So here choose a few of the more important traits that a success leader needed to discuss. Intelligence Intelligence has been identified as an effective leadership of the most important factors. An effective leadership has to clear analysis of the force. A good intelligence can help leader to rise up his power of analysis. When face the mission, leader can use his intelligence to work well and organize the group member to accomplish the mission. As based on assumption, leaders are born, not made. Intelligence cannot be acquired through efforts and by congenital got it. Leaders have good verbal skills, perception and reasoning. Self-confidence Self-confidence is one of the critical traits of leaders characteristics to effective leadership. A persons ability and skills have a certain capacity. It includes self-respect, self-affirmation, and believe that they can make a difference. Leaders have ability to influence others. This is very important. Determination Leaders have eager to get this job done. It includes active, persistent advantage. The aggressive leaders have ability to adhere to oppose obstacles. Integrity Honest and trustworthy. Adhere to a set of principles, solid strength, and take responsibility for their own behavior. Ethical leadership and inspire other peoples confidence. They do what they say, how do we do. They are reliable, loyal and not a lie. Sociability This is the tendency of leaders to seek a pleasant social relationship. Leaders full of friendly, cheerful, polite, tactful, and diplomatic. They have to take care of others and well-being. Leader do not need to have all trait to demonstrate themselves are effective leadership. As proprietor know, no one is perfect. For example, the 42nd president of United States William Jefferson Clinton (hereinafter referred to as Clinton). Clinton to attend various speaking engagements in term, his presentation skill showed his self-confidence and to attract followers. And his excellent interpersonal skill makes the United States to be in a leadership position under his leadership. Although the sex scandal happened in his time, but Clintons personal charm makes others to support him. Clintons public support rate is 65% to end off his time. That is a new record after World War II U.S. President. Different angles of trait approach in organization Strengths Weakness Give some benchmarks Intuitively appealing a century of research Too straight delimit No take situation in case Not useful way for develop leadership Transactional leadership and Transformational leadership These two approaches also use in motivate and encourage followers to achieve whether long-term or short-term goals or tasks in their expectation. These two approaches are feasible, which depend on followers is belong to which one of followers. Transactional leadership: The leaders agree that the followers want and like to help them achieve their goals in order to satisfy their getting from efforts. Thats means leaders and subordinates in an exchange relationship. The leader through substantial reward to clarify subordinates should play a role and mission requirements. When the subordinates finish their scheduled task, the leader will give them what they wanted money or material rewards as exchange. Just like Bass views, he generally defines transactional leadership behavior for three components as the follow: Rewarded and the use of incentives and team awards, the clarification of the impact of work motivation. Under the supervision and corrective measures to ensure that the work to proceed effectively. Added by Bass and his colleagues (Bass Avolio, 1990; Yammarino Bass, 1990), penalties and other corrective measures, including the use of significantly deviate from the standard of acceptable performance. Transformational leadership: Leaders have the ability to inspire and motivate followers to achieve the schedule effect, even greater than expected. Transformational leadership emphasizing the constructivism vision and actively get subordinates agree on the vision. The leader help subordinates to view their own values and beliefs and help them to develop amazing potential. Subordinates are with the leaders to achieve the vision and to complete the impossible task. Next, Bass further proposed four elements of transformational leadership which included charismatic leadership, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulus and individual consideration. On the above mention, give an example, the former coach of Chinese national womens volleyball team Chen Chung Wong. He led the Chinese womens volleyball team won the champion of a number of major competitions. He encouraged the volleyball team to play out the potential of the different personalities of the players. In the dynamic competition, he and his team members goal is also to win the champion. He use transformation approach to lead his ball team and he was successful. He was able to influence his followers and achieve the goal, so he did an effective leadership. Transactional leadership versus Transformational leadership Item Transactional leadership Transformational leadership Essence To the interests of the lure Spiritual encouragement Behavior Emphasis on individual performance Inspire potential, attention to overall objectives Applicable situation Stable environment Well-structured task Routine work Subordinates belongs to passive, do not like to work and irresponsibly Dynamic, changeable environment Low degree of task structure Non-routine, requiring subordinates decision task Subordinates belongs to active, positive potential Performance Completion of leaders matters assigned Completion of impossible challenging mission Transactional leadership and transformational leadership are dissimilar but not mutually exclusive. The same leader will use these two different methods of leadership approach in different times and in different circumstances. These types of leaders to guide or encourage their followers to achieve that target in the direction and the leader plays a clear role and knows clear task requirements. Transactional leadership and transformational leadership should not be seen as competing methods to get things done. So, if you are a good transactional leadership, but there is no change in the quality, you may only be a banal leader. The best leaders are mixed up transactional leadership and transformational leadership. Situational Leadership In the leadership and management of the company or team cannot use unchangeable methods. And have to change the approach of leadership and management when the situation and rapidly changes in the environmental context and the different of employees. The management was focus on the leader. Here is a diagram of situational leadership applies the following leadership behaviors: http://www.firefightingincanada.com/images/stories/CFF%2007/JAN/leadershipchart.jpg Situational leadership model for employees in specific job the employee growth process is divided into four stages: Directing (S1) the leaders just told the followers how to do it. Just give direction for followers. Thats low supportive and high directive. If an employee lack of experience to perform tasks, such as a new employee. In this case, his leadership has to give him a direction to help him to accomplish the task. In this situation, directing leadership will be effective. Coaching (S2) the leaders provides information and direction. There is more to communicate with followers. This style more interactive. So thats high supportive and directive. In some situation, coaching leadership will be effective. For example, when a low-level subordinate has certain ability, but do not have the needed skills, knowledge and information. And he lack of motivation to do the task. Coaching leadership will be suitable for these employees. Supporting (S3) the leaders pay more attention to the relationship rather than direction. Leaders and team work and share decision-making responsibility. Thats high supportive and low directive. When a senior-level subordinates do not work hard because of production capacity or personal reasons. The leader gives more support that will make him work hard again. In this situation, supporting leadership will be effective. Delegating (S4) leadership on followers or group most of the responsibility. The leaders also monitor progress, but their participation in decision-making. Thats low supportive and directive. This style has more freedom to work in this stage. For a senior-level subordinates have all the skills to carry out a less risk and no more time limited task and also have an internal backup support case. In this situation, delegating leadership will be effective. Relative to the four different stages of the employees, the leadership should take four different style of leadership. Four leadership styles for different stages included directing, coaching, supporting and delegating leadership style. When the employees in the first phase of S1, leaders have to take informed style to guide and instruct employees; when employees in the second stage of S2, leaders have to take marketing formula to explain the work to persuade employees; when the employees in the third stage of S3, leaders should adopt a participatory to motivate employees and help employees to solve problems. At the end of stage of S4, leaders will have to take authorization and delivered to employees, leader simply for the monitoring and inspection work. Conclusion In the conclusion, we can know that no matter in which environment, leadership always around our life. In the organization, leaders leadership skills can affect the employees behavior even the organization holder. In the life, everyone have leader to lead us. A good effective leadership should have good influence for their followers. An effective leadership must be personal charm to influence and motivate followers; should be master and applied scenically incentives and should have good basic quality such as good communication skills. The different stages of development and scale should adopt a different style of leadership. With the continuous development and changes in the environment, leadership approach also should be transformed into an effective leadership style. A good leader should be based on the different stages of company development, size of organization and management object at any time to adjust their leadership style and approach. Finally, leadership is in everywhere.

runaways :: essays research papers

Runaways   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The book I chose was the Runaways I thought it was pretty good but it could have been better. Well the story took place in Mexico ,Texas right when they seceded from the union. At that time Texas was broke. But there was one person who knew where to find money Deek Keeshaw. He planned to make a substantial withdraw with dynamite. Deek was joined with two brothers Tom and Bart they were all skinny and not all that smart either. One day they were going along in their wagon and they ran into Shad Parker now I have to tell you Shad is one of people you didn’t want to mess with. He had buffalo shoulders and big arms. He was also one of the guys who didn’t care what you have to say. Soon after that the three brothers ran into three orphan children Austin, Peg, and Davy. They looked as if they haven’t ate in a long time so they offered food and they took it. The three brothers decided to let the children stay with them. There was one more person the Keeshaws had to worry about deputy Homer Keeler. The Keeshaws have basically been on the run forever they started thinking of buying a farm and putting it under someone else’s name but they realized they couldn’t so they thought this is where Shad Parker would come in since he had a farm basically out in the middle of nowhere. They thought next time they ran into Shad they’d ask. A couple days they ran into him at the saloon soon to find out the owner was the Sheriff’s wife. They started talking to Shad and he came to the conclusion that they could not knowing they were runaways. They went to the farm and decided they would stay in the barn. Shad liked the children but he was furious about the Keeshaw brothers. They were their for a while until Shad started getting accompanied by folks he’d never seen before. Shad started getting suspicious and he asked the children what was going on thinking the Keeshaws wouldn’t tell him. So the children told him the brothers were getting ready to rob the Giliead’s bank.

Control Freak Essay

Virgos are analytical, observant, and precise. We strive to be perfectionist, so we have to be on top of everything and every detail. Whenever I do anything I do my best to make sure it’s perfect, whether it’s something I’m passionate about or something I’m forced to do. I like for things to be perceived in a certain way, I like for my efforts to be praised, and in order to get that it has to be perfect, if not near. A lot of people assume being a control freak is a bad thing, but in my opinion it’s not. I know what I want, and most times how I want it done. I’m not always lost or confused on a lot of things because I’ve probably thought about it in my head before and know what most possible outcomes are. What I’ve learned is that the only people who dislike control freaks are people who are control freaks themselves, or have control issues on some type of level. People who don’t really like responsibility, and are untamed tend to like control freaks because they keep them in line, and on point. They direct them and help them stay on track. An example of someone who could be a control freak is a Sergeant in the Army. When you’re a sergeant you have to dictate and tell people what to do. You have to make sure people follow a certain set of guidelines and rules, while following them yourself. Having that type of power over people will sometimes go to your head and make you a compulsive control freak. You want things done a certain way, at a certain time, in a certain place, with no exceptions. Another Example of someone who takes being a control freak overboard, or obsessive is  the â€Å"controller. These people obsessively try to dictate how you’re supposed to be and feel. They have an opinion about everything. They’ll control you by invalidating your emotions if those don’t fit into their rulebook. People with low  self-esteem who see themselves as â€Å"victims† attract controllers. Whether spouting unsolicited advice on how you can lose weight  or using anger  to put you in your place, their comments can range from irritating to abusive. What’s most infuriating about these people is that they usually don’t see themselves as controlling–only right. When it comes to myself and being controlling, it was never because I had a desire to control someone. When I was younger I watched over my younger brothers, I had a responsibility. I was left in charge, and having two younger kids to watch over, I had to take on the role of a father. So I was a mini dictator, I had to tell them what to do, and how. I had to make sure everything in the house was straightened, and not broken, and I sometimes had to discipline them. After years of doing this I developed a controlling personality. I don’t see myself as overly controlling, just subtly controlling. I don’t try to control every aspect of people’s lives. The only thing I’m really particular about is details in something I’m doing such as my work, art, appearance. When it comes to relationships and me being controlling, it doesn’t affect them. It doesn’t affect them because I’m not over the top controlling, I just tell them things to help improve them in some type of way. I actually like somewhat controlling people in relationships. The way I see it, it’s a challenge. They’re not easy, and submissive. I love dominance in a person; it gives me a sense of security when someone shows dominance. To me it’s like they care enough to give direction and guidance. Not all control freaks have a need to obsess and be in control of everything that is happening, some of us were put into a position of power that lead to being a control freak. And in our mind, it isn’t being controlling. We’re just particular about things, we know what we want in life. What’s so bad about that?

Nauryz

NAURYZ Once the Kazakh people lived in spacious steppes and at that time yet there were no calendars. They defined arrival of spring intuitively if warm sunshine started to get into the top opening of a yurta, means, to long frosty winter there came the end. According to old chronology this day usually coincided with March 21. Was considered that in day of arrival of spring there is an updating of the nature which was symbolized usually by a spring thunder. These days kidneys on trees started to bulk up, and the steppe was gradually painted by bright flowers and young greens.Holiday Nauryz – one of the most ancient holidays on Earth. He is marked out already more than five thousand years as a holiday of spring and nature updating by many people of Forward and Central Asia. The name of a holiday coincides with the name of month as Nauryz in a translation from Kazakh means – March. Kazakhs had a special custom – if in March the girl was born, it was named by Nauryz gul or simply Nauryz. The boys born this month, it was accepted to call Nauryzbek or Nauryzbay.Was considered that in March the most beautiful boys and girls as their skin was similar to the soft snow-white snow which is dropping out this month are born. In day of a holiday it was accepted to cover â€Å"dastarkhan† – a spacious cloth on which every possible viands were put. The main festive course called â€Å"Nauryz kozhe†, which was preparing from 7 ingredients: was: water, meat, salt, 7 types of grain: rice, perlovka, oats, buckwheat, corn, millet, wheat and milk. To festive â€Å"table† invited neighbors therefore on the eve of a celebration it was necessary to order housing.On one of traditions it was necessary to repay all debts, then all next year a family will be well off and in anything not to need. In day of a holiday all were kind with each other, presented with the warmest and light wishes that with approach of spring they were avoided by dis eases and troubles. Many traditions of this holiday are similar to celebration of modern New year. Kazakhs also tried to dress all new, to fill the house with tasty food and to present a part of heat to relatives that future season passed without are necessary also misfortunes.This day by all means it was necessary to address congratulations to the younger brother and all native. Than more guests came to the house, bigger wellbeing expected subjects a family next year. Today Nauryz became a public holiday of spring, work and unity. Today this holiday is equally expensive to all people living in multinational Kazakhstan. The ancient holiday Nauryz was harmoniously transformed to modern life, having kept continuity of traditions of an antiquity.

The attack on Pearl Harbor

The attack on Pearl Harbor Introduction On the morning of December 7th, 1941, the Japanese made an attack on the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor. It was an unprovoked attack which caught them by surprise. This attack is known to have been a major cause of America’s entry into World War II. Following this attack, America declared war on Japan. This attack is considered to have been highly unethical. It was an uninformed attack without any formal warning by Japan. It was conducted while negotiations between the two countries were still under discussion.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on The attack on Pearl Harbor specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This attack resulted in a lot of damage and significant loss of life. Statistics report that 2,402 men were killed and 1,282 were wounded (USSWestVirginia 2000). The Japanese carried out a series of simultaneous attacks. â€Å"They hit the American ships, military installations, military airfields, the fleet at Pearl Harbor and many others† (Navy.mil 1991). Through these sudden and simultaneous attacks the Japanese aimed to destroy the US planes before they could fight back or defend themselves. The immense damage that the Americans suffered included the destruction of approximately 200 aircrafts and four navy battleships were sunk. On the other hand, Japan’s losses were much lighter with only around 65 fatalities. Ethical Issue This attack was also unethical in the context that Japan did not attack the US pacific fleet with the aim of a direct war with them. This was only a preventative measure they took to make sure that the Japanese could carry out their plans against East Asia, China, and United Kingdom without military interference from the US. Hence, all this destruction and loss of life was merely collateral damage. This uninformed attack identified Japan as treacherous and deceitful. Outcome The outcome of this attack was that the very next day America declared war on Japan. All Americans united with their allies and just one attack changed the course of the war. It led to the internment of the Japanese in the western United States. This was the exclusion and detention of people with Japanese descent. This gave rise to strong anti-Japanese sentiments and hostility towards them. The most important and drastic outcome of this event was the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by America (History.com 2011). These unimaginable bombings marked the beginning of the nuclear age. On the 6th of August, 1945 America conducted its first nuclear bombing on the city of Hiroshima. The bomb named â€Å"little boy† was dropped on the city. Within seconds of this bombing, â€Å"around 30% of the total population of the city was killed instantly and around 70,000 were injured severely† (Truman 1945).Advertising Looking for report on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn Mor e All that was left of the city was just a scar in the ground and monstrous grey clouds of smoke emitting from it. Practically all living things, human and animal, were literally burnt to death,  (Truman 1945). By the end of the year, deaths resulting from the after effects of this explosion reached up to around 166,000. While Japan was still awestruck by this explosion, on the morning of August 9th, a second bomb was dropped on the city of Nagasaki. This bomb resulted in instant causalities ranging from 40,000 to 75,000 people. It also released large amounts of deadly radiation that spread all across the city and its surrounding areas. This was the outcome of the attack on Pearl Harbor. These bombings initiated the nuclear age; it was the first time the world had witnessed this. After the bombing the American president Harry S Truman stated in his press release â€Å"The Japanese began the war from the air at Pearl Harbor, They have been repaid many folds† (Truman 1945). This statement of the president clearly implied that he believed the bombings were the correct way of avenging the attack at Pearl Harbor. He was in fact proud of it. If one considered the loss of life and destruction caused by Pearl Harbor to be brutal then it is obvious that the devastation caused by these bombings was far worse. Not only were there numerous immediate deaths but the radiation also caused a lot of diseases like cancer, birth retardations and other abnormalities. Japan chose to surrender after the second bombing. If this decision hadn’t been made there were more bombings planned against them. This attack was conducted at a much greater scale than that made by the Japanese. Many innocent civilians were killed. Generations suffered because of the after effects of radiation from the bombs. While, Japan had targeted American security forces and equipment in their attacks, these bombings targeted the cities as a whole killing blameless people. Innocent wome n and children lost their lives. Countless buildings including hospitals and schools were destroyed. This event was historically the most unethical and immoral ending to a war. The intensity and horror of it was so great that no other nuclear attack ever took place after the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings (Crane 2005). Till date these are the only nuclear activities to have taken place. Alternate Outcome An alternate outcome to this could have been that the American government could have planned humanely. They might have targeted the security forces like Japan had done, and kept innocent civilians out of this. The bombs were used on too large a scale which was not necessary.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on The attack on Pearl Harbor specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, if bombing felt like the correct thing to do based on the circumstances at the time, the Japanese could have been given some kind of warning f or resident evacuation from the areas. The nation was unaware of the intensity of these bombs since it was the first time they had been used. The Americans themselves were not certain of the outcome, yet they still carried out the operation. It was stated that these bombings were carried out to put an end to World War II. If that was the case then other less destructive means could have been considered (Seligmann 2008). Most importantly, if the US was trying to highlight its hegemonic power in this war, the bombing at Hiroshima had caused enough devastation to prove it, a second bombing at Nagasaki was not necessary. This could have saved hundreds and thousands of lives, it could have prevented the numerous diseases that resulted as a consequence of the deadly radiation. And it was after witnessing the supremacy of these nuclear attacks that other countries started investing in nuclear technology and now numerous nations’ posses it. Sustainability In both these incidents, sus tainability of the target nation was not considered as it should have been. In the case of Pearl Harbor, an unannounced series of simultaneous attacks from the Japanese caused passionate feelings of dislike to arise against them. This resulted in incarceration of the Japanese Americans living in the West Coast. The anti-Japanese sentiments resulted in mass removal and imprisonment of them. There was no criterion as to who should be exiled. All Japanese Americans were forced to leave their homes and were sent to camps. Even the loyal and patriotic Japanese-Americans were not given any partiality. In some instances they were deported (Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum 1999). Those Japanese descents that had been American natives for a long time and were dedicated to the country deserved to have been shown respect and tolerance. The deporting of American national Japanese community highlighted the aspect of racism. Some were so disturbed by the behavioral changes in the society due to Pe arl Harbor that they left the country by choice. However, in 1944 a number of Japanese Americans were selected to serve in the military and intelligence services. The selection was based on merit and those who met the requirements were given positions.Advertising Looking for report on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More List of References Crane, Conrad C. 2005. The Atomic Bomb [online] available from pbs.org/thewar/detail_5234.htm Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum. 1999. The Spirit of Hiroshima: An Introduction to the Atomic Bomb Tragedy. Hiroshima: Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum. History.com. 2011. Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki [Online] Available from history.com/topics/bombing-of-hiroshima-and-nagasaki Navy.mil .1991. Overview of the Pearl Harbor attack, 7 December 1941. [Online] Available from history.navy.mil/faqs/faq66-1.htm Patel, D. 2007. Hibakush [Online] Available from associatedcontent.com/article/431254/hibakusha_victims_of_the_atomic_bombings.html?cat=37 Seligmann, M. 2008. The alternatives to bombing Hiroshima were not morally superior. [Online] Available from guardian.co.uk/world/2008/aug/15/nuclear.japan Truman, H. August 1945. Atomic bombings of Hiroshima press release [Online] Available from http://americanhistory.about.com/od/worldwarii/a/presshiroshima.htm USS West Virg inia. 2000. Pearl Harbor causality list [Online] Available from usswestvirginia.org/ph/phlist.php

The National Water Act defines a wetland as land which is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The WritePass Journal

The National Water Act defines a wetland as land which is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Introduction The National Water Act defines a wetland as land which is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Introduction1.Definition of a Wetland1.1 Function and Value of Wetlands2. THREATS TO URBAN WETLAND2.1 Physical Destruction2.2   Water Pollution2.3   Exploitation3.   WATER QUALITY4.   THE uMNGENI ESTUARY 4.1   Description of the uMngeni Estuary4.2   Threats to the uMngeni Estuary4.3   Reasons for Restoration5.   POSSIBLE RESTORATION PROCEDURES5.1   Considerations when Attempting Restoration5.2   Possible Mitigation Measures to Aid Restoration6.   BIO-MONITORING AND RESTORATION6.1   Types of Monitoring Methods6.2   Monitoring Restoration 7.   BIO-MONITORING7.1 Programmes Implementing Bio-monitoring7.2   South African Scoring System7.3   Habitat Assessments Aiding Bio-monitoring8.   BENTHIC MACRO-INVERTEBRATES8.1   Characteristics That Aid in Bio-Assessments9.   THE USE OF BENTHIC MACRO-INVERTEBRATES IN BIO-MONITORING  9.1   Sensitivity of Benthic Macro-invertebrates to Environmental Stress9.2   Advantages of Using Benthic Macro-invertebrates in Bio-monitoring9.3 Disadvantages of Using Benthic Macro-Invertebrates in Bio-monitoring10.   Role Benthic Macro-invertebrates Will Play in Monitoring and Conserving uMngeni Estuary10.1   Characteristics of the Benthic Macro-invertebrate Population that Indicates the Health Status of the Estuary10.2    How Feeding Groups Are Linked To the Composition of the Estuary10.3. The Distribution of the Various Types of Benthic Macro-Invertebrates Along the uMngeni River Into the Estuary10.4.   The Effectiveness of Using Benthic Macro-Invertebrates in Bio-Monitoring11. AREAS OF CONCENTRATION  CONCLUSION  REFERENCES  Related Introduction 1.Definition of a Wetland The National Water Act defines a wetland as land which is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The water table in a wetland is usually very close to the surface; therefore the land is, at times, covered with shallow water supporting thousands of species, typically adapted to life in saturated soil (Agius, 2010). Wetlands in KwaZulu-Natal vary greatly according to topographic, hydrological and climatic influences. Wetlands can be referred to as swamps, marshes, estuaries, bogs, floodplains, vleis and pans. The internationally accepted definition of a wetland includes â€Å"areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters,† (Dugan, 1993). There are three unique characteristics that indicate whether an environment is a wetland or not. Firstly there must be a high water table, which acts as a hydrological indicator. Secondly hydric soils must be present, which acts as a pedological indicator. Finally hydrophytic vegetation must grow in the environment, which acts as a botanical indicator (James, 1979). 1.1 Function and Value of Wetlands Wetlands have many functions and values man increasingly depend upon, due to their exponential population growth. Wetlands have hydrological functions, such as flood attenuation where they form natural floodways, aiding in the transportation of flood waters. Wetlands store water during floods, which is slowly released to downstream areas. Wetlands recharge and discharge ground water and can dissipate erosive forces. Wetlands improve the quality of water by aiding in the removal of excess nutrients, chemical contaminants, sediments and numerous toxic substances (such as heavy metals and pesticides). Wetlands also provide a habitat for a broad variety of plants and animals. In Natal 144 wildlife species are dependent on wetlands for their life requirements. Many of the animal species listed as endangered in South Africa are associated to wetlands. Wetlands have high tidal and inland productivity, which provide nutrients and are food sources to many species. Lastly wetlands have various socio-economic functions which include providing recreational sites for fishing or hunting and they provide educational opportunities for observing and studying nature (Rosenburg, 1993). 2. THREATS TO URBAN WETLAND The value of wetlands was not realised up until very recently. Prior to this they were not protected by law and therefore were frequently degraded and even destroyed by an increasing and continuous urbanisation and industrialisation of our planet. This damage continues to occur however due to the disregard for the legislation protecting these areas and the ignorance of the possible outcomes of the loss of these wetlands. 2.1 Physical Destruction There are numerous threats to the sustainability of the wetlands existing today. An ever increasing global population and the resulting outcomes of this is the major hazard for the protraction of these precious regions. It leads to the growth of residential and commercial development which may occur near or over wetlands eventually leading to their destruction from activities such as levelling, dredging, draining, filling, removal of vegetation and restriction of flow in order to create additional land to be used for the purposes of construction (Hendricks, 2004). 2.2   Water Pollution Human interference in or around wetlands brings about other activities which impact negatively on the wetlands and the ecology within. Pollution from dumping, littering, runoff and untreated stormwater and sewage diversion into a wetland, as well as from public recreational activities, alters the hydrology of the wetland and diminish the water quality. This results in groundwater contamination, poor soil conditions to facilitate vegetation growth, flora and fauna extermination as well as disruption of flow patterns (Agius, 2010 ). 2.3   Exploitation Urbanisation also leads to the exploitation of the resources that wetlands offer. Water is pumped out of the wetland for various purposes such as for potable water and irrigation. These areas are also abundant in minerals and peat which are extracted as well as fish which are harvested excessively. If left unmanaged the sustainability of these wetlands may be at risk. Chemical contamination due to pest control is a secondary effect from these activities which reduces the conditions in which living organisms in the wetland can continue to exist (NSW Department of Natural (Resources, 2008), (MRSC, 2001). 3.   WATER QUALITY Biological communities, such as communities of benthic macroinvertebrates, can change due to habitat degradation, water quality degradation or both. Ecosystems in both rivers and estuaries are affected by water quality variables. These variables could be physical, which include turbidity, temperature and suspensoids; or chemical, which includes toxic and non-toxic variables. Toxic variables being: traces of metal and biocides, and non-toxic variables being: pH, conductivity, nutrients, organic enrichment and dissolved oxygen. The quality of water can also be affected by the composition of the uMgeni estuary itself. The factors affecting water quality are namely, topography, geology, climate, land use and the type of soil found in the estuary (Eggers, 2007). 4.   THE uMNGENI ESTUARY An estuary, by definition, is a type of wetland located at the crossing point between two environments, viz. marine and fresh water environment, and is the most dynamic and productive ecosystem in the world (Ethekwini Municipality, 2010). Figure 1. Aerial photograph of uMngeni River leading to uMngeni Estuary and out into the Indian ocean (Ethekwini Municipality, 2010)    Figure 2. Photograph of uMngeni Estuary (Ethekwini Municipality, 2010) 4.1   Description of the uMngeni Estuary The uMngeni Estuary supported by the uMngeni River, which carries water from the Inanda Dam, flows into the Indian Ocean at Durban as depicted in Figure 1 (The River Health Programme, 2002). The uMngeni Estuary is a 230 ha, structurally modified, permanently open estuary which can be viewed in Figure 2. One of uMngeni Estuary’s most eye catching features is its Beachwood Mangrove, located on the northern bank – the fifth largest mangrove in South Africa (Ethekwini Municipality, 2010). The uMngeni Estuary is of both ecological and recreational importance – providing marine animals with a habitat as well as allowing for human sporting activities such as angling (South African River Health Programme, 2004). The mouth of this estuary, being permanently open, gives rise to a high salinity gradient, which brings about a diverse fish population. It houses 24 taxa of benthic macro-invertebrates, with polychaete Capitella capitata being the most prominent – a type of indicator species which detects organic pollution. There is also an abundance of birds at the estuary (Ethekwini Municipality, 2010). 4.2   Threats to the uMngeni Estuary The uMngeni Estuary, like many other natural water sites, are susceptible to threats. Currently, the state of this estuary is classified as â€Å"highly degraded† by the eThekwini Municipality. uMngeni Estuary is situated in the eThekwini Municipal Area, an area home to a third of KwaZulu-Natal’s population; however, this population occupies only 1% of the province’s land area, creating a population over load and the need for urban expansion. Expansions along the coastal regions disrupt the estuarine environment causing degradation (Ethekwini Municipality, 2010). Other more serious threats include: canalisation of the uMngeni River, this results in the removal of habitats in the estuary region; the Inanda Dam regulating the flow of water, thus preventing the natural supply of sand entering to the river resulting in silting and the closing of the estuary; eutrophication as a result of nutrient additions; chemical and organic pollutants; invasive alien plant specie s and direct resource exploitation due to sand mining and over fishing (South African River Health Programme, 2004). 4.3   Reasons for Restoration It is of importance that the uMngeni Estuary be restored to good condition for it is viewed as a biodiversity asset, providing key ecosystem services such as nursery area for fisheries, flood abatement, biodiversity refuge protection and recreation. Being located adjacent to Moses Mabhida Stadium and at the northern end of Durban’s beachfront, it is a zone of recreational activities as well as a tourist â€Å"hot spot† and it is therefore crucial that the condition of the estuary be enhanced to promote tourism and economic growth in South Africa. In addition, a good quality estuary would offer the local community, as well as visitors, the opportunity to engage in nature based activities in an urban landscape (ECO Systems, 2010). 5.   POSSIBLE RESTORATION PROCEDURES A damaged or degraded wetland is by no means useless or irreparable. In fact in many countries throughout the world damaged wetlands have successfully been restored such as the Tidal Wetlands at East Trinity, Cairns, Australia (Agius, 2010). After decades of being subjected to noxious sulphuric acid runoff, scientists were able to reverse the effects by gradually allowing sea water into the wetland using existing floodgates. 5.1   Considerations when Attempting Restoration According to the Parks and Recreation Board for the City of New York, the key points to focus on when attempting the restoration of any wetland are the re-establishment of appropriate hydrological systems, soils and indigenous vegetation (Parks and Recreation, 2010). This can be achieved by a number of acts to undo the negative effects that were previously impacting upon the wetland. These acts include fill removal, fresh soil placement, invasive plant eradication and indigenous plant restoration, erosion control, stormwater, runoff and pollution management (Parks and Recreation, 2010). 5.2   Possible Mitigation Measures to Aid Restoration Fill removal and soil replacement aims at land alterations that will assist in reforming previous ecologic conditions that existed within the wetland. The eradication or control of alien plants and the restoration of indigenous plants also assist with this revitalization. Stormwater, runoff and pollution can be eliminated and managed however long term pollution elimination can only be achieved through the efforts of the surrounding residents and industrialists. These people should understand the value of a wetland and therefore why conservation is crucial in order for them to behave in manner that does not result in further pollution (Casagrande, 1997). During the restoration process it would be extremely beneficial to utilise indicators so as to monitor the quality of the water and thus the condition of the wetland as a whole. In this way the progress or lack thereof can be noted and this may give an idea of the way in which to proceed with the restoration process. 6.   BIO-MONITORING AND RESTORATION Human activities are continuing to increase yearly and this is placing pressure on wetlands. Many wetlands have already been destroyed due to urban and agricultural development. The remaining wetlands need to be monitored so that they remain functional. Efficient and accurate techniques are essential for the assessment of a wetland. There are four major factors in wetland degradation namely: altered water regime, habitat modification, pollutants and exotic species. Monitoring may be defined as the collection and analysis of environmental data (Biological, chemical, and/or physical) over a sufficient period of time and frequency to determine the status or trend in one or more environmental parameters or characteristics toward meeting a management objective (Cale. 2004). Wetlands are sensitive and need to be constantly monitored to remain balanced. Monitoring wetlands provides information on the Biotic Integrity which is defined as â€Å"the ability to support and maintain a balanced, integrated, adaptive community of organisms having a species composition, diversity and functional organization comparable to that of natural habitat of the region.† (Garner 2002). 6.1   Types of Monitoring Methods Digital change detection is used to spot visual changes over a landscape. Aerial photos are captured via satellite or aircraft. Images taken at different times are observed and changes in vegetation are noted any suspicious findings prompt further investigations. Chemical and physical monitoring gives useful insight into the state of the water with the wetland.   Samples of water are gathered and properties such as water depth, dissolved oxygen content, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), ph levels, temperature and turbidity are determined and analysed to establish the status of the wetland. Toxicity tests are carried out in laboratories whereby a sample is taken from the wetland then screened and compared to that of controlled water to check for toxicity. Chemical monitoring provides information on toxic compounds but cannot provide early warnings (Michael 2010). Biological Monitoring uses the responses of living organisms to determine the state of a wetland. Living organisms such as Algae, benthic macro invertebrates, vertebrates, phytoplankton etc are used as indicators of the wetland’s status these organisms are sensitive to change. Changes in their reproduction, growth, behavior etc are observed which gives insight with regards to what’s happening in that environment.   Samples of these living organisms are taken and analyzed. Early warning systems can be developed whereby organisms from site are kept in a special on site laboratory and receive flow from the actual site, these organisms are monitored over time to note any behavioral and physical changes induced by anthropogenic stress. Early detection is key to restoring a balanced environment (NAVFAC, 2004). 6.2   Monitoring Restoration Monitoring methods are not only useful for early detection they also aid in monitoring restoration processes. During restoration monitoring techniques can be used to collect data on soil, nutrient levels, plant and animal growth etc ,this data would indicate whether or not the restoration is successful. The restoration process must be under constant monitoring to ensure success. 7.   BIO-MONITORING Bio-monitoring, by definition, is a technique used to check the health of an aquatic ecosystem by using the density and relative abundance of resident organisms as an indicator (Day, J., 2000). According to Rosenberg and Resh (1993), the â€Å"ideal’ indicator should have the following characteristics: The indicator should be a taxonomically sound and be identifiable with ease The indicator should have a wide spread population distribution The indicator should be numerically abundant The body size of the indicator should be large The ecological requirements of the indicator should be known Indicator should be suitable for the use in laboratory studies 7.1 Programmes Implementing Bio-monitoring To increase the awareness and knowledge on the state of aquatic ecosystems across South Africa, The Department of Water Affairs (DWA) developed a programme, known as the National Aquatic Ecosystem Bio-monitoring Programme (NAEBP), for monitoring the health of aquatic ecosystems. This programme was later renamed the River Health Programme (RHP), which focused on the implementation and maintenance of bio-monitoring across South Africa. The RHP use invertebrates as one of the many organisms used for bio-monitoring (WRC, 2002). 7.2   South African Scoring System Scoring Systems are used to allocate scores to different biotic groups, based on the organism’s sensitivity to pollution and environmental stress. For example, stoneflies and mayflies have high scores based on their abundance and presence. The South African Scoring System, better known as the SASS4, is based on macro-invertebrates, where taxa are assigned sensitivity scores according to their responsiveness to changes in the water quality. All biotopes are sampled to obtain an accurate reflection of the communities of macro-invertebrates and their corresponding sensitivities to deteriorating water quality. The sensitivity scores for all the communities are summed to give the sample score. The Average Score per Taxon (ASPT) is found by dividing the sample score with the number of communities found (Graham, M., 1998). 7.3   Habitat Assessments Aiding Bio-monitoring For bio-monitoring to reflect the true condition of the river and estuary, a habitat assessment must be performed. An assessment of the habitat integrity must be performed before the assessment of the biotic integrity. A habitat assessment will aid the bio-monitoring in numerous ways, including finding appropriate sampling sites, provides basic information that will help interpret the bio-monitoring results and will help identify constraints on the potential of a site. The SASS4 recognizes 3 habitat assessment guides which could be used, namely, the Habitat Assessment Matrix (HAM) which looks at the impact of physical habitat degradation using a SASS score, the habitat assessment (HABS1) in which habitats are assessed based on biotopes used for sampling and Habitat Quality Index (HQI) which is very similar to the HAM (WRC, 2002). 8.   BENTHIC MACRO-INVERTEBRATES Benthic macro invertebrates (benthic = bottom, macro = large and invertebrates = animal without backbones) are animals without backbones that are larger than  ½ millimetre – a photograph of benthic macro-invertebrates can be viewed in Figure 3 below. These animals live in sediment, debris plants etc for at least part of their life. Benthic macro invertebrates include crustaceans such as crayfish, such as clams and snails, aquatic worms and the immature forms of aquatic insects such as stonefly and mayfly nymphs (DNR 2004). Figure 3. Photograph of Benthic Macro-invertebrates Benthic macro invertebrates are widespread and can live on all bottom types. They are found in wetlands, lakes ponds etc. most benthic species can be found the whole year round but numbers intensify during spring just before the reproductive season.   Benthic macro invertebrates easily move around with the currents or by flying. Many species undergo metamorphosis then reproduce. Most of their lives are spent in water (Rosenburg,1993). These organisms are an invaluable tool with regards to wetland monitoring and bio-assessments in general. When placed in harmful environments these organisms display â€Å"tell tale† responses, these responses help conservationists identify problems in the wetland. 8.1   Characteristics That Aid in Bio-Assessments Benthic macro invertebrates have characteristic that aid in bio-assessments. à ¼Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   They are well dispersed and occur in most wetlands. à ¼Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Show different reactions to different types of pollution and other adverse effects. à ¼Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   High life spans à ¼Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Sampling of Benthic macro invertebrates is simple , does not require heavy equipment The observation of benthic macro invertebrates provides important information that will prolong wetland health and increase sustainability. Their behaviour and availability aids conservationists to develop early warning signs and save wetlands. 9.   THE USE OF BENTHIC MACRO-INVERTEBRATES IN BIO-MONITORING   Benthic macro-invertebrates possess all the ideal characteristics of a bio-monitoring indicator, as listed above by Rosenberg and Resh (1993). Benthic macro-invertebrates have been documented as one of the most valuable tools for bio-monitoring aquatic ecosystems and are widely chosen to evaluate the quality of surface waters. The types of bio-monitoring using benthic macro-invertebrates include surveillance and to ensure compliance (Richard, 2010).Surveillance surveys could be taken before and after the environmental impact or could also be taken to see whether water resource management techniques are effective or not. Benthic macro-invertebrates could be used to ensure immediate environmental requirements are met or used to control and monitor long term water quality (Townsend 1980). 9.1   Sensitivity of Benthic Macro-invertebrates to Environmental Stress According to Rosenberg and Resh (1993), benthic macro-invertebrate display certain reactions, that are both biochemical and physiological, when confronted by an adverse environment. Exposure to impacted environments could even lead to deformities. Jeffrey and Madden (1991) found that other macro invertebrates have also had negative side effects, such as a decrease in the case building ability of the Agapetus fuscipes, a decline in the feeding rate of the amphipod Gammarus pulex and a change in the reproductive behaviour of the midge Chironomus riparius. Salanki (1986) noted that the populations of the macro invertebrates tend to drift down stream of the water body when faced with chemo-physical changes.   Therefore the most common indicators of environmental stress in macro invertebrates are the changes in their growth, survival, population distributions and reproduction. 9.2   Advantages of Using Benthic Macro-invertebrates in Bio-monitoring In this literature review benthic macro-invertebrates have been chosen as the biological indicator in the uMngeni Estuary, over other forms on macro invertebrates for numerous reasons. They occur and can survive in almost all types of habitats. There are various taxa of benthic macro-invertebrates that range in sensitivity to all kinds of environmental stresses and pollutants. Benthic macro-invertebrates are sedentary by nature, making it easier for them to pick up on approaching pollutants. Their life cycles are long enough to detect exposure to pollution and environmental stress, and the population will not recuperate so quickly that the harm will go undetected. Sampling the Benthic macro-invertebrates is a simple procedure and does not require complicated devices on site (WRC 2002). 9.3 Disadvantages of Using Benthic Macro-Invertebrates in Bio-monitoring However, according to Rosenberg and Resh (1993), there are disadvantages to using benthic macro-invertebrates in bio-monitoring. There are certain environmental impacts that do not affect benthic macro-invertebrates. Water quality is not the only factor that effects their population distribution and abundance, the natural conditions of the habitat in which they live also plays an important role. Their population abundance and distribution varies across the seasonal changes, which can cause sampling problems.   Fortunately, the problems discussed can be overcome with proper knowledge of the habitat predilections, life history and drift patterns. 10.   Role Benthic Macro-invertebrates Will Play in Monitoring and Conserving uMngeni Estuary 10.1   Characteristics of the Benthic Macro-invertebrate Population that Indicates the Health Status of the Estuary The surveillance of benthic macro-invertebrate communities, focusing on taxonomic composition and richness, is the most sensitive tool for effectively detecting changes in aquatic ecosystems, like the uMngeni Estuary. Therefore it is more beneficial to analyse the entire population of invertebrates as a whole rather than looking at individual taxa. Population characteristics, that could be used to detect environmental changes, include richness, diversity and interactions as a functional community. Community functions include productivity processes, decomposition and fluxes in nutrients and energy (Williams, 1990) 10.2    How Feeding Groups Are Linked To the Composition of the Estuary The analysis of the size and characteristics of various feeding groups of benthic macro-invertebrates can be linked to certain aquatic conditions and can give insight into the nature and composition of the estuary. According to Townsend (1980), these macro-invertebrates can be categorized into 4 major feeding groups, namely, grazers which feed of algae, shredders which feed of large particles of plant matter, collectors which feed on fine particles on the stream bed or filtering through the water and predators which feed on invertebrates, fish and other aquatic animals. Therefore if an unnatural increase in the number of grazers were found during the bio-monitoring, it could be concluded that there is an abnormal growth of algae in the estuary that could be due to an environmental stress or pollutant. 10.3. The Distribution of the Various Types of Benthic Macro-Invertebrates Along the uMngeni River Into the Estuary The benthic macro-invertebrate population distribution in terms of the various feeding groups, with regards to the uMngeni River supplying the uMngeni Estuary, will be as follows. The upper part of the river will have course particulate organic matter. Here large population groups of shredders and predators can be found. In the middle reaches of the river, finer material can be found supporting collectors and grazers. In the lower reaches of the river and estuary the material found will be very fine and tend to settle as the current slows down. Here predominantly grazers can be. However the population distribution down the river into the estuary can be influenced by many abiotic factors, such as oxygen, current, substratum, concentration of dissolved chemicals and temperature. All these factors must be taken into consideration during the testing phase. 10.4.   The Effectiveness of Using Benthic Macro-Invertebrates in Bio-Monitoring Using benthic macro-invertebrates in bio-monitoring is one of the most effective ways to indicate an environmental impact. For example if toxins are flowing through the water of the river, a chemical investigation would not reflect the exact impacts as the toxins would be quickly washed downstream and out of the estuary. However there would be radical changes to the benthic macro-invertebrate populations for quite some time, even after the toxins have gone (Graham 1998). An investigation determined by Muirhead-Thomson (1987), showed that a community of benthic macro-invertebrates took 2 to 3 week to recover from the application of the insecticide, methoxychlor. This would give researchers ample time to find the exact impacts of a pollutant or environmental stress if implemented along the uMngeni River and into the estuary. 11. AREAS OF CONCENTRATION Different species of invertebrates can be located at specific areas throughout the estuary as discussed in the previous section. It is therefore important to know which region of the wetland would be of particular significance in achieving the goal of restoration. The overall state of the water quality of the uMngeni Estuary is especially dependant on the condition of the freshwater being provided by the uMngeni River. It would thus be prudent to pay attention to the benthic macro-invertebrates that exist at the point where river and estuary meet and even further up along the river as well. In this way it may determined if considerable degradation is occurring before the water even enters the wetland. By monitoring and enhancing the condition of water in the river the quality of the water in the estuary can be enhanced (South African River Health Programme, 2004). Ultimately a large number of concentration areas should be chosen so as to obtain a general idea of the state of the estu ary and whether conditions are improving or declining.   CONCLUSION The uMngeni Estuary is an invaluable ecosystem in the Durban area that if left unprotected will be destroyed by pollution and exploitation. It is essential that efforts be made to restore this environmental treasure to a naturally functioning wetland devoid of human impaction. In correlation with the restoration procedure the utilisation of a bio-monitoring process is extremely useful in determining wether conditions in the wetland are improving. 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Chapman and Hall , London Salanki, J. (1986). Biological Monitoring of the state of the environment : Bioindicators.IRL Press , Oxford South African River Health Programme 2004. , The South African State of Rivers Report: uMngeni River and Neighbouring Rivers and Streams [Homepage of www.dwa.gov.za], [Online]. Available: dwa.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/state_of_rivers/state_of_umngeni_02/umngeni.html#lumng [2011, 4/10/2011]. The River Health Programme 2002, , uMngeni.pdf (application/pdf Object) [Homepage of Umgeni], [Online]. Available: environment.gov.za/soer/reports/rivers/umgeni/uMngeni.pdf [2011, 4/10/2011]. Townsend, C.R. (1980) The ecology of streams and rivers. Edward Arnold Limited , London Washington state department of Transportation 2011, ,   Wetland Momitoring   [Homepage of Washington state department of Transportation], [Online]. Available: wsdot.wa.gov/Environment/Biology/Wetlands/monitoring.htm%23backgroundie=utf-8oe=utf-8aq=trls=org.mozilla:en-US:officialclient=firefox-a [2011, 4/9/2011]. Williams, M. Institute of British Geographers 1990, Wetlands : a threatened landscape, Blackwell, Oxford, Oxon. WRC 2002, January-last update, 2002_January wetlands [Homepage of WRC], [Online]. Available: wrc.org.za/Lists/Knowledge Hub Items/Attachments/4529/2002_January_1320_Abstract.pdf [2011, 4/10/2011].

Audi Marketing Mix Analysis

Audi Marketing Mix Analysis The Audi history begins with a man called August Horch, and in 1899, he established the Company HORCH CO. He invented his first car in 1901. But in 1909 Mr. Horch leaves his company and founded another company called Audi. â€Å"Audi † is the Latin translation for â€Å"Horch† and he took that name. In 1910, the brand â€Å"AUDI Automobilwerke GmbH† was registered. In 1931, the AUTO UNION was founded some members were DKW, HORCH, WANDERER and AUDI. Moreover, the new companies insignia to show the union of the four companies was the now familiar 4 rings, that what still used by Audi today. After the 2nd world war, there were again many cars produced, the most important for them were the DKW Munga, a four-wheel jeep with 3-cylinder 2-stroke engine. Invented in 1956 for the German military, there have produced 250 cars for testing purposes. And these cars made a trip around the world and drove more than 240 000 km also without major problems. This was the beginning of the later concept called Quattro and it had nearly 57 000 Mungaswere built until 1968. In the following years, they have many different engine- and car types were invented and produced in large amounts. There also improving, rallying and testing the first real ur-quattro with the new coupe body was build in 1980. And the power has been raised to 200hp in the testing time, and most of the other car producer did with a 2.2l engine. Audi, the core brand that the Audi has been focusing by the Audi Group in adopting its Strategy 2020 on the challenges of the future. The mission ‘We delight customers worldwide’ was explored in greater depth during 2011 where the strategy took on firmer contours. Heightened environmental awareness, growing uncertainty about the future availability of fossil fuels and increasing urbanization are the results of giving more weight to new issues that have emerged. The Mission of this company is â€Å"We delight customers worldwide†. The Audi brand’s products are famous of the brand values sportiness, modernism and sophistication. The brand with the four rings aims to suggest customer delight in many other ways and thus can lead to building technologically advanced vehicles. The mission statement which is â€Å"We delight customers worldwide† plays a main role on the path to becoming the leading first-class brand. The Audi brand has well-defined its understanding of customer delight in greater detail in the following four areas of action. That are â€Å"We define innovation†, â€Å"We create experiences† , â€Å"We live responsibility† and â€Å"We shape Audi†. In this company there have three objectives. First is to create impact and drive awareness of Audi Q5 launch. Second is demonstrating Audi’s core value proposition of â€Å"Progressive Performance†. And then last is communicate Audi’s prestige offering. Those three objectives is what Audi company execution in this few years. On the other hand, in this few year the Audi Company’s target market are predominantly males between 40-50 years old, married with a household income between $137K – $265K. And women who are a key influencer in the purchase process of the Q5.

Sports Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Sports - Essay Example For example, the 100 Metres race is known to be dominated by black people. White people shy away from it because they assume that they do not have the energy to run as fast as the blacks do. On the other hand, white people dominate swimming more than the black people do. White people are known to spend most of their time in water. This creates the perception to blacks that whites are best at swimming, and other races in the sport cannot replace them. This essay will explain the effects of race in sports, and how it affects the performance of participants in different fields of sports. Most people and participants know the effect of race on sports. In various universities in the USA, there are certain sports that are mostly practised only by people of a certain racial identity. This has a lot to do with the economic condition of people who belong to the African American community; which is historically underprivileged also due to preconceived notions and prejudices. There are many rea sons for this, the primary one being the historical one where they had access to formal education for a short period due to slavery. Even today, there are many prejudices that are associated with race in the minds of people of all races. Sport is seen as one of the main ways African youths can escape the poverty of the places they were born. For the eradication of such beliefs, education is considered as the best remedy. People like Booker T. Washington (Washington, 2006) also suggested this. There are, however, problems that have occurred during the implementation of this policy. Many African Americans secure admissions to good colleges because of their skills in sports, and this often makes them to neglect other aspects like their education. Due to the oppressive circumstances, they have to go through; many see this as the only avenue that is open. This discussion is about those sections of the African American community that is economically underprivileged, and not those that hav e achieved a high social status in their lives. The importance of this difference must be understood, and affirmative governmental action should be taken to account for the differences that are engendered by class distinctions, while at the same time being aware of the handicaps that racial oppression has created in the society. Interest in sports has also to do with history and the challenge that the African American community took up for attempting to rival the other races that had oppressed them for long. Sadly, this took on the form of a machismo that had the corollary of leading to the oppression of African American women at the hands of African American men. It is important to look at this lack of strategic essentialism, in an analysis of the importance of sports in the development of certain unhealthy social trends amongst people of the African American community. Sport has led to the achievement of many laurels for the United States of America. However, it has led to the pol arisation of several communities based on essentials that has stemmed from historic stereotypes and inequalities. In Stuck in the shallow End: â€Å"Education, Race, and Computing, UCLA researcher† Margolis Jane outlines the history of swimming in the USA to show how blacks have been affected by inadequate access to swimming facilities and lessons. She asserts â€Å"In most cases of discrimination, typecasts and systems of beliefs about dissimilar ethnic gender groups genetic makeup and

Transportation Policy-The paper will discuss the negative impacts of Research - 1

Transportation Policy-The will discuss the negative impacts of free off-street parking and possible solutions to counteract such problems - Research Paper Example ntrols by the ownership of the shopping malls, the development of free off street parking space has been considered as one of the poorest planning events in the history of building (Mukhija & Shoup, 2006). Due to the presence of free off street parking, several Americans have continued to prefer the use of personal cars. However, the state and federal government have been denied an opportunity to increase the revenue collection as mall owners continue to use this approach as a way of attracting customers. It is a good economic policy to have measurable cost for off street parking to enable regional and state governments to enhance their revenue collection activities (Mukhija & Shoup, 2006). The increasing population of motorists in the United States has created the need for the development of proper parking strategies to eliminate the challenges associated with increased vehicle population. Generally, it is estimated that the overall cost of parking ranges from $250 to $2000 which are calculated without the inclusion of other charges. Municipalities across the country have continued to face the challenge of increased management costs and the destruction of the parking spaces due to improve parking arrangement and lack of control on private malls. The emergence of different structures across the towns has reduced the efficiencies and room for the development flexible designs for parking lots (Mukhija & Shoup, 2006). The adoption of different parking strategies has different impacts on the economy and the environment of the country. off street parking facilities impacts on the development and economic benefits of central business districts in a number of ways which makes this approach less effective in busy towns. Due to the nature of our development, the landscape has continuously been occupied with cars as members of the public prefer using private cars as opposed to the public transport system. In most instances, cars spend 95% of their life parked and this has

Collective Bargaining Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Collective Bargaining - Research Paper Example Negotiation is there in the corporate as well. When it comes to the corporate, negotiation is known as collective bargaining. Collective bargaining is a process where both managerial officials and the union can place their opinion and they can have a mutual agreement on their interest (Holley, W. H. & Et. Al., â€Å"The Labor Relations Process†). Each and every person has the power to fight for their own interest, but when it is collective bargaining both the parties will have a systematic negotiation, so that both the parties remain satisfied. Collective bargaining has become a famous and a common aspect in almost every organization. Collective bargaining is a politically powerful arrangement. The managerial board decides to negotiate with their employees or with the union, so that they can have a continuous and a peaceful work process in the future (Holley, W. H. & Et. Al., â€Å"The Labor Relations Process†). In the relation to the above discussion, one incident can be observed. United Steelworkers (USW) has successfully bargained various different provisions to improve several facilities and the safety of the workers working at ArcelorMittal at 14 plants in around eight states in the US. In fact, for the on-site employees’ health and safety they have appointed few representatives and a union safety committee. USW negotiated an increase in the minimum number of safety training hours per worker as well as an agreement by the company to provide flame-resistant clothing (American Federation of Labor, â€Å"Collective Bargaining†). This development would help the organization to have continued production, good intrapersonal relationship among the employees and the superiors. It will help to reduce the medication cost on the employee. A Recent Article on Collective Bargaining The Major League Baseball (MLB) is one of the most recognized organizations in the field of baseball. MLB has their steroid policy for their players, and the investigation department is under strict observation and rules and norms. Recently, MLB had a tough time in the organization and they had to bring certain changes in the policies. And, which was done by collective bargaining. This is a pertinent example of a successful collective bargaining. The article presented about the incident describes that two particular players of the organization were found guilty out of their steroid test. And, the company had appointed a person as consultant to look into the matter. When the result or the report was out, the players did not take it seriously and they showed their doubts regarding the findings. Therefore, the higher officials decided to take an action and they brought certain changes i

Discussion borad about special education students Essay

Discussion borad about special education students - Essay Example Most practitioners maintain a reactive stance to various scenarios and the way majority respond to dilemmas or pressing situations are mirrored by the students who look on educators as role models. The diverse applications provided by technological breakthroughs and gadgets give students the orientation and privilege of locating solutions as the tip of their hands. Gone were the days when answers to traditional home works could only be researched by going to the school library and searching for the answers from diverse sources, using extra time and effort to prepare for the compliance of academic requirements. Now, students sit in front of the computer and navigate as answers unfold right in front of their eyes. But this is technological development and no one could contest the path it takes. The most that academicians could do at the point is to design strategies that would use technology in creative and innovative ways to hone problem solving and analytical skills of children. Our external environment provides immediate access to information and our students are just responding to the availability and easy access according to what is expected of them. As educators have already acknowledged that information is readily accessible, and its easy access endangers the ability of students to apply critical thinking, analyzing and problem-solving skills, the more that this environment should provide a challenge for us to use it to our advantage. We should be the one to change our stances to pro-active rather than merely reactive to address the dilemma of students’ inability to apply the needed skills in various scenarios. As a colleague has posted, â€Å"problem-solving, critical thinking and brainstorming often require additional time, team building skills and the effort to go the extra mile†. Teachers should provide the appropriate environment to hone these skills in students and enable them to discern the appropriate skills to use in times when these are needed.

Car Industry Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Car Industry - Assignment Example Financing is another new dimension to the whole situation as car companies are trying to make a profit on financing by offering lower financial rates than financial institutions. Most giant automobile companies have expanded into providing financial services to car buyers. Leasing has benefited both consumer and manufacturer. With leasing option consumers find cars more affordable and thus they increase the overall demand for cars. However, if leasing is not done at the right value of the vehicles at the end of the lease then it could eventually be a loss for the company. Technological & Environmental Concerns: Technological changes and advances have also become a key factor in the industry. Advances in aerodynamics, brake assistance, adaptive speed control and global navigation and satellite tracking system etc require a proactive approach by the industry with regard to technology. Increasing awareness of environmental issues has also forced the industry to look into cars with alternative fuel options. Fuel Efficiency has also become a key selling element in the industry. Hybrid cars can be considered a step in this direction with the use of smaller, more-powerful and easily recharged lithium ion batteries for hybrid cars. Such batteries would be able to help in reducing the oil consumption and thus helping in reducing the oil demand. Ethanol, Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Power cars are therefore coming to the limelight putting a lot of emphasis on environment. Ecommerce: Internet like every business has also affected the car business as consumers can make informed decisions before making an automobile purchase. There sites available that support deliver competing bids for cars, insurance and financing in a way that lowers costs and improves satisfaction among consumers. Not only Internet revolution has helped customers but e-commerce has helped manufacturers in managing their supply chains and controlling their inventories. Capacity Issues: The industry has also been facing problems of capacity. Plant capacity throughout the world has resulted in an industry that is capable of making more cars for fewer customers meaning that supply exceeds the demand for cars. This sustenance of capacity by creating parallel demand for cars is a challenge for the industry. Dealerships: Dealership of cars is another area which has seen major changes over the years. Now, nationwide holding companies have got their hands on the best dealers in major markets. Even national chains have acquired the used car business. These changes now affect the way car manufacturers see the delivery of their end products. Situation of Car Parts Firms: Suppliers have of car parts have an important role to play in the industry. Dash boards, seats, tires, etc. are provided by Original Equipment Manufacturers. Many car parts manufacturing firms in UK are losing ground to cheaper rivals in Eastern Europe and the Far East. Some firms could even get closed, without the upgrade in their setup. There are companies in the region which are investing in their future by getting new equipment to help keep going in the face of growing foreign competition for example, some firms got ability to mould larger plastic car parts with its new machinery. The competition from Eastern Europe and the Far East is very disturbing for the manufacturing industry. A new

Collective Bargaining Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Collective Bargaining - Research Paper Example Negotiation is there in the corporate as well. When it comes to the corporate, negotiation is known as collective bargaining. Collective bargaining is a process where both managerial officials and the union can place their opinion and they can have a mutual agreement on their interest (Holley, W. H. & Et. Al., â€Å"The Labor Relations Process†). Each and every person has the power to fight for their own interest, but when it is collective bargaining both the parties will have a systematic negotiation, so that both the parties remain satisfied. Collective bargaining has become a famous and a common aspect in almost every organization. Collective bargaining is a politically powerful arrangement. The managerial board decides to negotiate with their employees or with the union, so that they can have a continuous and a peaceful work process in the future (Holley, W. H. & Et. Al., â€Å"The Labor Relations Process†). In the relation to the above discussion, one incident can be observed. United Steelworkers (USW) has successfully bargained various different provisions to improve several facilities and the safety of the workers working at ArcelorMittal at 14 plants in around eight states in the US. In fact, for the on-site employees’ health and safety they have appointed few representatives and a union safety committee. USW negotiated an increase in the minimum number of safety training hours per worker as well as an agreement by the company to provide flame-resistant clothing (American Federation of Labor, â€Å"Collective Bargaining†). This development would help the organization to have continued production, good intrapersonal relationship among the employees and the superiors. It will help to reduce the medication cost on the employee. A Recent Article on Collective Bargaining The Major League Baseball (MLB) is one of the most recognized organizations in the field of baseball. MLB has their steroid policy for their players, and the investigation department is under strict observation and rules and norms. Recently, MLB had a tough time in the organization and they had to bring certain changes in the policies. And, which was done by collective bargaining. This is a pertinent example of a successful collective bargaining. The article presented about the incident describes that two particular players of the organization were found guilty out of their steroid test. And, the company had appointed a person as consultant to look into the matter. When the result or the report was out, the players did not take it seriously and they showed their doubts regarding the findings. Therefore, the higher officials decided to take an action and they brought certain changes i

Car Industry Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Car Industry - Assignment Example Financing is another new dimension to the whole situation as car companies are trying to make a profit on financing by offering lower financial rates than financial institutions. Most giant automobile companies have expanded into providing financial services to car buyers. Leasing has benefited both consumer and manufacturer. With leasing option consumers find cars more affordable and thus they increase the overall demand for cars. However, if leasing is not done at the right value of the vehicles at the end of the lease then it could eventually be a loss for the company. Technological & Environmental Concerns: Technological changes and advances have also become a key factor in the industry. Advances in aerodynamics, brake assistance, adaptive speed control and global navigation and satellite tracking system etc require a proactive approach by the industry with regard to technology. Increasing awareness of environmental issues has also forced the industry to look into cars with alternative fuel options. Fuel Efficiency has also become a key selling element in the industry. Hybrid cars can be considered a step in this direction with the use of smaller, more-powerful and easily recharged lithium ion batteries for hybrid cars. Such batteries would be able to help in reducing the oil consumption and thus helping in reducing the oil demand. Ethanol, Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Power cars are therefore coming to the limelight putting a lot of emphasis on environment. Ecommerce: Internet like every business has also affected the car business as consumers can make informed decisions before making an automobile purchase. There sites available that support deliver competing bids for cars, insurance and financing in a way that lowers costs and improves satisfaction among consumers. Not only Internet revolution has helped customers but e-commerce has helped manufacturers in managing their supply chains and controlling their inventories. Capacity Issues: The industry has also been facing problems of capacity. Plant capacity throughout the world has resulted in an industry that is capable of making more cars for fewer customers meaning that supply exceeds the demand for cars. This sustenance of capacity by creating parallel demand for cars is a challenge for the industry. Dealerships: Dealership of cars is another area which has seen major changes over the years. Now, nationwide holding companies have got their hands on the best dealers in major markets. Even national chains have acquired the used car business. These changes now affect the way car manufacturers see the delivery of their end products. Situation of Car Parts Firms: Suppliers have of car parts have an important role to play in the industry. Dash boards, seats, tires, etc. are provided by Original Equipment Manufacturers. Many car parts manufacturing firms in UK are losing ground to cheaper rivals in Eastern Europe and the Far East. Some firms could even get closed, without the upgrade in their setup. There are companies in the region which are investing in their future by getting new equipment to help keep going in the face of growing foreign competition for example, some firms got ability to mould larger plastic car parts with its new machinery. The competition from Eastern Europe and the Far East is very disturbing for the manufacturing industry. A new

Regression Analysis of Ipl Players Auction Essay Example for Free

Regression Analysis of Ipl Players Auction Essay Linear regression model has been developed using Backward variable selection method. The criterion used for Backward method is Probability of F-to-remove gt;= 0. 100 As seen from the above table in our model the ‘R Square’ value of is 0. 618 and ‘Adjusted R Square’ value is 0. 592. Team variable is removed Cricket in the T20 format is considered a young man’s sport, is there evidence that the player’s price is influenced by age? From our analysis we have seen that the price of a player is greater if the player is less than 25 years of age. Identify the predictor that has the highest impact on the price of players. Batting strike rate and bowling strike rate do not have significant impact on the pricing. This can be explained by very low R2 = 0. 014 for bowling strike rate and R2 = 0. 034 for batting strike rate. Bowling Strike Rate vs Sold Price Batting Strike Rate vs Sold Price The base price has the highest impact on Selling Price of the players. When compared to others, the base price has the highest R square value How much should Mumbai Indians offer Sachin Tendulkar if they would like to retain him? Is the model sufficient to predict the price of Icon players? According to model, the sold price of Sachin is 1800000 but fair value of Sachin Tendulkar is 1598610. 008 which minimum amount should be paid. Icon player should get 15% premium over second highest pay. But this factor is not considered in our analysis. Hence, our model can’t predict the value of icon players.